A review by socraticgadfly
The Origins of Judaism: An Archaeological-Historical Reappraisal by Yonatan Adler

challenging informative reflective slow-paced

5.0

Simply a great book. Aharon’s look at archaeological and related evidence for when various practices commanded in the Torah of the Pentateuch became widespread is simple, and has more and more data to be researched today. 
 
First, the exact phrasing above? Aharon uses “Pentateuch” for the five books “of Moses.” Torah is used for the “teaching,” which often was law or “nomos,” within them, to then ask where it was discussed literarily centuries later, ie, Christian New Testament, Qumran, Josephus, apocrypha, etc. That’s his terminus ad quen. Therefore, he does not use the Mishna; sayings attributed to 1st century CE rabbis by the second century may not hold up. 
 
Then, as noted, he also looks at archaeological digs and related for their evidence. 
 
He looks at several areas of Torah: Dietary laws, ritual purity, “graven images,” tefillin and mezuzin, all of which get longer treatment, the synagogue’s existence, and a group of items under “miscellaneous practices.” 
 
The conclusion he has is that based on the “lived experience” of practitioners of what became Judaism, none of these were widespread before the start of the Hellenistic area, and in most cases, it wasn’t until Hasmonean times. In fact, that’s his summary — that the Torah as prescriptive not descriptive was pushed and promulgated as a Hasmonean unity document or constitution of sorts. 
 
Notes below are my observations and stimulations, as well as what I learned. (Most all if it is behind spoiler alerts, as this is even longer than Israel Drazin’s review! 

Here's the meat!
 
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DIETARY 
 
I’d already heard about the catfish bones outside Jerusalem in approximately Davidic times. 20 percent or more of all fish bones. 
 
 
RITUAL PURITY 
 
The ritual purity chapter was great, and especially the immersion bath subsection. Aharon shows this likely didn’t become widespread until the start of the 1st century BCE. He said it may have been aided from the start of the Hellenistic world by the rise of its hip bath. The photos involved, plus quotes from Josephus as well as the New Testament? Make clear how big of a deal this was. 
 
I also think of Paul calling out Peter for his dining hypocrisy. Maybe this was instead a “weaker brother” thing on Peter’s part, where he was OK with ignoring ritual purity concerns when by himself with Gentiles, but didn’t want to upset other Jewish Jesus-believers when they were around. 
 
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GRAVEN IMAGES 
This includes mosaics and such like the famous synagogue at Dura-Europus, which is well outside the end date of Aharon’s focus. Mainly, though, beyond figurines to Yahweh or other goes, the focus is on human or animal depictions on coinage. Pre-Hasmonean times, the circulation of coinage with images, even if not human ones, is attested in the land of Israel; Aharon shows examples from Ptolemaic times. 
 
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TEFILLIN/MEZUZOTH 
Tefillin. Per the various texts that were commanded to be bound, could a little box really hold that much? 
 
Not sure why Aharon thinks Exodus 13:1-16, the consecration of the firstborn, is inappropriate for a mezuzoth to be nailed to a door, only a tefillin. 
 
 
SYNAGOGUE 
Attested for 1 CE by Philo, Josephus, archaeology. One excavation puts one synagogue as having an earlier phase in 1 BCE. 3 Mac MAY attest to earlier. Philo and Josephus referencing or citing Augustus MAY attest to 1 BCE, too. That's it. Nothing at Qumran. 
 
 
MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICES 
First is circumcision. Aharon notes that outside the Pentateuch, Philistines are called "uncircumcised." But, no indication is given as to why Israel was, nor is it noted that other West Semites were as well. And, they’re the only people identified as such outside of it. 
Second is Sabbaths. Aharon notes a 1 Maccabees exemption for self-defense but tale in 2 Maccabees appears to reject this exemption, the Jews killed in the cave. Sabbath restrictions are outside of the Pentateuch in the Tanakh as far as any acts being barred on Sabbath, except Nehemiah, who talks about people treading grain and such, and in another verse, promises to bar the gates of Jerusalem on the Sabbath, plus a lesser verse from Jeremiah. Ezekiel talks about profaning Sabbaths, but no details; ditto 2nd Isaiah. In both cases, this appears about Sabbaths as religious holidays, not specific proscriptions. 
Sabbath work restrictions were an intense matter of deliberation at turn of eras, especially with Qumran barring bad words and thoughts, too. Aharon that before the 2nd century BCE, there's not even clear evidence of a 7-day week for Jews and that Sabbath was more likely a general religious holiday; see above on Ezekiel and 2nd Isaiah. And, even if it were, clearly it wasn't being generally observed much before Hasmonean times. 
The third is Passover and Unleavened Bread. Unleavened Bread festival of some sort is referenced in Joshua. 2 Chronicles 30 talks about Hezekiah having a big Passover blowout and TWO seven-day periods after that. 2 Kings 23 talks about Josiah’s Passover, with more in 2 Chronicles. Elephantine writings talk of Passover circa 420 along with Unleavened Bread, but no details on observances. 
Next? Yom Kippur. No Tanakh cites outside the Pentateuch. One Josephus reference and a couple of apparent Qumran ones. 2 Chronicles and Nehemiah, by silence, are unaware of it, as both talk about Sukkoth, which comes just after, without reference to Day of Atonement. Ditto Ezekiel. This is not mentioned in New Testament gospels, either, not even in John, which mentions the three great festivals. Hebrews does have an apparent citation in Chapter 9, but it’s a reference to the priestly action of the Pentateuch and not anything communal, not even the Leviticus 16:29 or 23:27 actions. Aharon misses a small trick by not noting that. 
That means that Yom Kippur as observed today is almost certainly Rabbinic in the “push” for it, and not Hasmonean, and likely was a substitute with the destruction of the Second Temple, to go beyond Aharon. 
Sukkoth is in Temple Scroll and Jubilees, and may well have been actually practiced in early Hasmonean times. Neh. 8 has the one reference outside the Penteteuch, though its "four species" greatly differ from Leviticus. 
Menorah? The Pentateuch-prescribed version has no attesting elsewhere pre-Maccabean. 
 
REASSESSMENT 
Goes beyond the data of earlier chapters to analysis and conclusions. 
Persian era 
First, notes Ezra and Nehemiah are both composite texts. Then rejects on various grounds that their narratives reflect the idea that the Pentateuch was established based on Achaemenid decree. Next looks at actual archaeological and epigraphic evidence from this area about Judeans in the heimat, in Babylon, and in Elephantine. 
Athena identified with Anat by West Semites. Anat venerated at Elephantine. Also notes Persian era Yahweh coin with second deity on it. Both these coins also NOT aniconic! 
Elephantine writings do not have the word "Torah" or its Aramaic. Nor do they reference "Moses." Inhabitants there swore oaths to other gods. One was Anathyahu. 
Notes that after Egyptian priests destroyed this temple in 410, the Jews there asked for help in rebuilding it from the Jerusalem priests, which surely undercuts the "one place" idea. 
Babylonian Judeans ca 525-475 also appear to know nothing of a Pentateuch. 
 
Early Hellenistic, to the revolt 
Notes 1 BCE Diodorus Siculus was apparently truly citing from now-lost 4 BCE Hecataeus of Abdera (not H of Miletus as DS claimed), but that it was not from Hecataeus alone and there's little to glean. 
Letter to Aristeas? Scholars date it no earlier than the start of the Hasmonean era. Pentateuch likely translated 3 CE. Notes that translator(s) chose "nomos" for "torah" rather than "didache" or "didaskalia." Says not to read too much into this. 
"Traditions of the ancestors" cited in letters and proclamation by Antiochus III ca 200 BCE. Says not all may be genuine, or at best, have genuine cores with later editing. 
Ben Sira talks about Torah/nomos, but it’s unclear what he meant. 
Conclusion to this subsection? The Pentateuch existed at this time, but might not have been finalized, and its Torah was probably not observed by, nor of interest to, the masses. 
 
Greek law codes as model? 
Looks at hypothesis by Michael LeFebvre that they served as both model and spur, and started as descriptive, not prescriptive. 
Hammurabi, etc., were purely descriptive. Greeks, in writing their law codes out, were doing so with a more prescriptive mindset. These codes, contra Babylon, etc., contained commands for sacred observances, etc., as well as "civilian" prescriptions. 
LeFebvre says Torah developed as descriptive and shifted to prescriptive under Ptolemaic influence. Ptolemy II gave Greeks and Egyptians separate courts, and subordinated both their codes to royal law. 
Aharon considers this "plausible." 
 
Hasmonean era 
Daniel 9-11 may reflect attacks on Temple court, not whole Torah. 1-2 Maccabees name Torah, not just "covenant" as in Daniel. They cite many specific commands, like Nazirite vows, first fruits, tithes, etc., that rebels observe. 
I Maccabees  was quite possibly written in time of Jannaeus, per Aharon and others? II Maccabees dating from mid 2 BCE-mid 1 CE with some uncertainty. 
Notes contra voice of Sylvie Honigman that revolt was economic and no real religious persecution. (Note Hanukkah was originally pagan.) Torah as binding thus a result, not a cause.
 
 
CONCLUSION 
 
Unity document 
Even if the persecution was real, it may well have targeted just the temple cult, per Daniel. The Torah was elevated in Maccabees as part of Hasmoneann unity program. John Collins and Reinhard Kratz propose this. Hyrcanus coercing Idumeans to support "the whole law" may support this. So may the rise of Jewish sectarianism upon independence.